Table 1 Evidence referring to the association between migraine and the risk of vascular disease

Ischemic stroke

Numerous studies demonstrating an association with any migraine [e1-e22];

Definite association with migraine with aura [e1,e3-e4,e7-e8,e11-e12,e15-e16,e19-e21];

No definite association with migraine without aura [e1,e3,e7,e11-e12,e16,e19-e20];

Association with migraine with aura confirmed by three meta-analyses [e23-e25].

Transient ischemic attack

The risk seems to be increased in migraineurs, although this issue has not been extensively investigated due to a challenging overlap of symptoms with migraine aura [e6,e19].

Hemorrhagic stroke

Several studies addressing the topic and providing inconsistent results [e5,e8-e10,e26-e29];

A meta-analysis of those studies indicating a small but significant association [e30];

No definite conclusion regarding migraine type.

Cardiac events

Two large studies indicating an association with any migraine in men and women and with migraine with aura in women (data not available for men) [e1,e2]; Conflicting results provided by other available studies [e4,e31-e33];

No association with any migraine in meta-analysis of data but few studies available [e23]; No analysis according to migraine type due to lack of data.

A recent study reporting an association between migraine (any migraine, migraine with aura and migraine without aura) and myocardial infarction [e4].

Vascular death

A meta-analysis and a large study supporting an association with migraine with aura [e23];

No association with any migraine according to meta-analysis of data [e23].

Other vascular diseases

Studies indicating a possible association with any migraine and retinal disease [e34,e35] and peripheral artery disease [e36-e37].

Brain lesions

Migraine has been associated with white-matter hyperintensities and infarct-like lesions [e38-e42];

Association of migraine with white matter hyperintensities confirmed in two meta-analyses [e41,e43]; no definite association with infarct-like lesions [e43]