Table 2 Environmental factors and stimuli modifying placebo/nocebo effects

Patient’s expectations [13]

Previous experiences [14]

Pre-treatment verbal and non-verbal suggestions [15, 16]

Patient’s personality [17]

Speed of treatment titration [18]

Cultural factors [19, 20]

Safety profile of treatment [21]

Age [22]

Patient-doctor relation/communication [23]

Social Media and Internet information [24]

Investigator/physician status [15]

Gender [25]

Affective and cognitive traits [26]

Level of patients’ education [22]

Generic formulations [27, 28]

Genetics [29]

The appearance of drugs or medical devices, e.g. packaging, color, price, drug taste, etc. [30, 31]

Invasive, non-invasive treatments [32]