Table 1 Summary of the evolution of the temporal pattern of headache in children (M = migraine, TTH = tension-type headache; CH = cluster headache)

Guidetti et al. [15]

prospective, 8-year follow-up

age 12–26 yrs., (mean age 17.9 yrs.)

M, TTH

- 26.5% of the patients with M changed to TTH.

- high rate of headache remission in males.

- 8.3% with TTH changed to M.

- 45% showed improvement, 34% were headache free, 15% unchanged, 6% worsened.

Hernandez-Latorre et al. [38]

10-year prospective longitudinal study

>6 ≥ 10 yrs.

M

- favorable evolution among children with headache started after 6 yrs.

- 88% favorable clinical course; 12% placed on prophylactic treatment.

Brna et al. [39]

prospective, 20-year follow-up

mean age 11.1 yrs.

M, TTH

- 66% improvement

- triggers of headache: stress, sleep deprivation, bright light, certain foods.

- more TTH remission

- 38% motion sickness

- 45% with mild headaches were headache free at 20 years;

- 13% rushes sensory disturbance

- 18% with moderate/severe headaches were headache free at 20 yrs

- 7% Alice in Wonderland syndrome

- 72% with moderate/severe headaches continued to have moderate or severe headaches at 20 yrs.

Balottin et al. [40]

prospective, 4.2-year follow-up

< 6 yrs.

M, TTH

- headache persistence in the minority of cases associated with detection of somatic and psychiatric disorders.

-

Kienbacher et al. [12]

prospective

17.6 ± 3.1 yrs.

M, TTH

- 25.7% were headache free, 48.6% still M and 25.7% still TTH at the follow-up.

- unfavorable outcome: longer time between headache onset and first consultation

- good prognosis: changing headache location at baseline and long clinical follow-up

Kelman et al. [42]

cross- sectional study, retrospective analysis

mean age 37.7 ± 11.7 yrs

M

- new headache triggers: hormones, alcohol, smoking, neck pain;

- stress as a trigger, photophobia, phonophobia and dizziness, decrease with age;

- shift in headache location toward the neck.

- decrease in the strength of attacks, and reduced need to sleep or rest during headache

- increase in rhinorrhea and lacrimation

Virtanen et al. [43]

prospective, controlled study

6-13 yrs

M, TTH

- 1/2 of M unchanged at 6 yrs; 32% changed to TTH.

- osmophobia, dizziness and balance disturbances became more typical with age

- TTH unchanged in 35%; 38% changed to M.

- restlessness, flushing and abdominal symptoms became less marked.

- at preschool age the location of headache was bilateral and

- supraorbital; at puberty bilateral and temporal.

Gaßmann et al. [44]

prospective, 4-year longitudinal study

8-15 yrs

M, TTH

- M more frequent in girls than boys, and this difference increased significantly with age.

- TTH dropped from 57% among 8-year-olds to 45.6% among 15-year-olds.

- M increased with age from 10 to 17.1%.

Slater et al. [45]

prospective, retrospective

mean age 11.7 ± 3.6

M

- early onset of headache in boys

- higher levels of disability as shown by PedMIDAS and no. of missed schooldays in girls.

- boys’ headache: squeezing at the top of the head; sharp pain at the back of the head

- older children were more disabled.

- girls reported frontal and temporal headache, and pain in the back of the head; pain: throbbing, pressure, constant and sharp.

- girls experienced more frequent and longer mean duration of headaches.

- older children reported greater headache frequency.

Ozge et al. [46]

prospective, longitudinal, school-based six-year interval analysis

8-18 5562 children of whom 1155 followed up as adolescents

M, TTH

- childhood headache persists in adolescence, although the diagnoses mostly (71.3%) changed over time.

- PedMIDAS score higher in subjects with parents with headache history

- M prevalence increased from 10.4% in childhood to 18.6% to adolescence in the same study sample after a 6-year interval.

- No supportive correlation with BMI MOH frequency 13.0% with migraine and high PedMIDAS score predominance

- Headache prevalence increased with advancing age, especially in females; stress factors were the most important determinants.

- M negatively affects daily living activities in adolescents.

Wöber- Bingol et al. [47]

cross- sectional study, retrospective analysis

3- 69 yrs

M with or without aura

- decrease in headache prevalence from childhood to adulthood in males

- aggravation by physical activity found to be decreased with age.

- increasing of headache duration with age, prevalence of unilateral and pulsating pain, photo and phonophobia in girls.

- aura more frequent among ages 15–40 years

- no gender differences in aura symptoms.

Maytal et al. [10]

retrospective

18 yrs or younger

CH

- clinical features of CH in childhood similar to those in adults.

-changes in associated symptoms over the years in a small number of patients

- increase in frequency and duration of cluster periods with age in 40%.

- decrease in duration of cluster periods in 6%

- short cluster periods in 23% of patients in childhood and in 6% of patients in adulthood.

- CH shifted sides in one patient.

Lampl [31]

epidemiological + 1 case report

7 years

CH

- no data about evolution of headache

- no differences between childhood and adolescent CH with regard to type of pain, associated symptoms and predominance in males.

- frequency and duration may increase or remain unchanged over time if pts are untreated

- although brief remissions may occur, spontaneous resolution of CH is rare.

Antonaci et al., [48]

case report and literature review

case of an 11-year-old boy

CH

- first bout 8 months; second bout 2 months, with the same pain characteristics.

- this patient as a ‘variant’clinical picture

Arruda et al. [49]

prospective case report

9, 12 and 13 yrs

CH

- no differences between childhood and adult CH regarding frequency and duration

- good response to indomethacin in two cases;

- sustained long-term medical and/or spontaneous remission occurred in two patients.